<text>You are about search for bibliographical information in the water resources database, brought to you by the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and the USDA Forest Service Partners in environmental education. To start browsing through the bibliography, just click on the mouse.</text>
<text>By Rose Ana BerbeoTHE ASSOCIATED PRESSA radical change in thinking is needed before many of New Mexico's rural communities will be able to meet federal drinking water standards, state lawmakers were told Friday.Leaders of small, rural communities must stop refusing to raise water user fees if they are going to upgrade their water systems, the executive director of the New Mexico Rural Water Association told a legislative interim committee.Gavin Strathdee appeared before the Environment, Land Use and Solid Waste Committee, which met in Albuquerque to hear reports on problems with infrastructure planning, water and air quality.Some communities have been fined, and others are expected to be because they cannot afford testing for harmful substances in water required under the 1986 amendments to the federal Safe Drinking Water Act, said Strathdee, whose association is a private, non-profit organization of community water systems."For many small communities, just taking a sample and getting it to a lab is very difficult," he said.Under federal law, the Environmental Protecdon Agency can impose fines of up to $25,000 a day on communities that do not comply with safety standards, he said.While the EPA hasn't levied that fine on any New Mexico communities, it has fined some towns $10,000, Strathdee said.But leaders of many rural, unincorporated communities, some with as few as 100 families, refuse to raise water rates because of political or other reasons, he said.In most small towns, the average residential user fee is $8 to $10 a month, Strathdee said.Those communities will have to start charging $35 to $40 a month before they win be able to afford water testing, which can add up to thousands of dollars a year, he said.During the last legislative session, $500,000 was anocated for rural water testing."... Communities aren't looking to themselves to make the changes. A radical change in thinking is necessary," Strathdee said.This year, the state has identified 39 of New Mexico's 639 mostly rural water systems as consistent viohtors of federal standards, Strathdee said.Communities of 10,000 or more people have until Jan. 1 to comply, Strathdee said.Berbeo, Rose Ann. "Rural Drinking Water Lacks Tests, Panel Told." Assosciated Press Story in Albuquerque Journal. 15 July 1990. E6.</text>
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<text>Berbeo, Rose Ann. "Rural Drinking Water Lacks Tests, Panel Told." Assosciated Press Story in Albuquerque Journal. 15 July 1990. E6.</text>
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<text>Here's the anticipated timeline for awarding contracts for construction of major features of the Animas-La Plata Project:Late 1990ΓÇöRelocatlon of pipelines, powerlines and other utilities that are in the path of the project.Early 1993ΓÇö-Ridges Basin dam, the largest single feature of the project.Late 1993ΓÇöDurango pumping plant, which would pump water from the Animas River to Ridges Basin.Earlt 1994ΓÇöRidges Basin Inlet conduit, the line running between the river and the reservoir.1995ΓÇöSeveral reservoir facilitles, such as the Long Hollow tunnel, Dryside canal and Ridges Basin pumping plant.1996ΓÇöRecreational facilities on the reservoir.1997ΓÇöRedmesa pumping plant and irrigaton laterals, extended reaches of the Dryside canal and Dryside laterals. Construction of canals and laterals would continue through 2000.1998ΓÇöDurango municipal and industrial pipeline, connecting the city to the Ridges Basin water supply.Durango Herald. "Schedule for A-LP in '90s." Durango Herald. December 31, 1989.</text>
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<text>Durango Herald. "Schedule for A-LP in '90s." Durango Herald. December 31, 1989.</text>
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<text>Eichstaedt, Peter. "State Water Czar's Health Failing." Santa Fe New Mexican. 7 April 1990.</text>
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<text>NEW MEXICANApril 7, 1990STATE WATER CZAR'S HEALTH FAILINGBy Peter EichstaedtHe is tall and lean. Silver hair signals his 73 years of age. He walks with a limp, the result of an on-going struggle with a problem leg, and uses a shiny, black cane for support.He is the state's chief witness in water issues before the Legislature and in courtrooms from Santa Fe to Washington, D.C. When he clears his voice, the room quiets. He speaks in deep, deliberate tones.The man is State Engineer Steve Reynolds, water czar of New Mexico.Reynolds has parted the waters of New Mexico for 35 years and has survived numerous governors and multimillion-dollar lawsuits. It is not unusual, then, that his reputation precedes him.As the chief administrator of New Mexico's water, one of the state's most precious commodities, Reynolds has carved out a reputation unequaled in New Mexico history.But Reynolds has been ill for several weeks in a Santa Fe hospital, giving rise to speculation that he might be forced to consider retiring.Reynolds was admitted March 29 to St. Vincent Hospital for surgery to repair a blocked artery in his leg, a flare-up of a 9 year-old condition, family physician Richard Streeper said.Physicians had to amputate the lower part of the leg, and he remains in serious condition in the hospital's intensive-care unit.Although he continues to be hospitalized and has undergone serious surgery, Reynolds has a job and loyal staff awaiting his return, said Philip Mutz, who unofficially is running the office in Reynolds' absence.Technically, Reynolds serves at the pleasure of the governorΓÇöand he has served continuously since his original appointment in 1955 by Gov. John Simms.Practically, Reynolds' future is up to Reynolds, said Eddie Binder, spokesman for Gov. Garrey Carruthers."The governor wants him to recover as quickly as possible and wants him back feeling good again," Binder said. "Whatever Mr. Reynolds will decide, the governor's actions will be taken from there. The governor thinks highly of Steve Reynolds."Reynolds, a native of Illinois and an engineering graduate of the University of New Mexico, is credited with bringing New Mexico's once chaotic water laws under control.He's done such a good job that other Western states where water is equally precious pattern their water laws after New Mexico's, his admirers say.Unlike other parts of the country, New Mexico's water laws are derived from Spanish law that says the first and oldest users of the water have the first rights to it. The law also includes a dictum: Use it or lose it. Eastern states allow stream-bank owners to dictate water use.Reynolds has been a fierce advocate of damming rivers to hold water and control flooding. Under his regime, most of the dams on the Rio Grande have been built.It was Reynolds and U.S. Sen. Clinton P. Anderson of New Mexico who created the San Juan-Chama River Water Diversion Project, which has pumped millions of gallons of water from the mountains of southern Colorado into the Rio Grande to ensure abundant water supplies for Albuquerque and Santa Fe far into the future.Santa Fean Frank DiLuzio, former director of the Santa Fe Metropolitan Area Water Board and former deputy secretary of the federal Interior Department, said Reynolds' reputation is national.DiLuzio said Anderson and other water officials from across the country grew to trust and rely on Reynolds' advice and knowledge in shaping national water policy.Anderson, as chairman of the Senate Interior Committee, "would call Steve for comments on legislation," DiLuzio said.DiLuzio, himself, relied heavily on Reynolds for advice on Interior Department matters."He could work firsthand with the professionals and work closely with the congressional delegation. He spent quite a bit of time in Washington to give advice," DiLuzio said.Reynolds first got the state engineer's job in 1955 on a temporary basis when Gov. Simms needed a fast replacement for a state engineer who was ill, DiLuzio said.At the time, Reynolds was working at New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, where he was trying to figure out ways to bring more rain to New Mexico. Reynolds never returned to the school.Because of his expertise and power, Reynolds became an irreplaceable part of state government. "No governor's had the guts to remove him," DiLuzio said.Some of those governors might have been under pressure to do so.Former Gov. Bruce King, for example, said Reynolds once canceled well permits for King's relatives because the water was not being used.King, who served two terms as governor, reappointed Reynolds twice. "He would keep us well briefed," King said of Reynolds' contributions to state government. "We generally went with the positions he had. He was looking out for the best interests of New Mexico. He played no favorites with anyone."Former Gov. Jerry Apodaca said this of Reynolds: "The reason Steve Reynolds (has) had the success with as many administrations as he (has) is because of his skill and his understanding of the issues and his willingness to resist whatever he thought was wrong."One governor never reappointed Reynolds, but was unable to dislodge him.The governor was Toney Anaya, who decided the state needed a new direction in water management. Reynolds never stepped down."His term expired early in my administration," Anaya said. "I purposely never submitted his name to the Senate for confirmation. I was never challenged or questioned about it."Anaya said he has a lot of respect for Reynolds but disagreed with him on how the state's water should be managed."I campaigned (for) a Department of Water Resources in New Mexico," Anaya said. "I felt we needed to be managing and conserving (water) better rather than simply allocating it. The office of state engineer has been primarily on the allocation side of the equation."Anaya said he decided against forcing Reynolds to step down when the city of El Paso, Texas, sued the state for millions of gallons of water El Paso believed had illegally been diverted for use in southern New Mexico."Because he (has) such a towering aura and because of the battle with El Paso, it would have hurt the state's efforts," Anaya said of his decision not to attempt to remove Reynolds. "That case was so important we had to put the rest on the back burner."Another Reynolds' antagonist is Santa Fean Sally Rodgers, a longtime environmentalist and wife of Rep. Max Coll, D-Santa Fe.As a leader of an environmental group called The Central Clearinghouse and as a former member of the Environmental Quality Council, Rodgers said she often fought Reynolds over issues but gained respect for the man."He is one of those rare people with whom you can have vast philosophical disagreements and still have a great deal of respect for him," Rodgers said."He was the recipient of our first Earth Enemy Award by the Central Clearinghouse based in Santa Fe," Rodgers said. "He came to the award ceremony and gave a speech. We gave him a The Milagro Beanfield War T-shirt. It was on the back door of his office and he showed it to people with great pride."Despite her respect for Reynolds, Rodgers said the state engineer's office needs to be modernized and in particular, a deputy should be trained to ensure a smooth transition when Reynolds decides to step down.Grove Burnett, an environmental lawyer, said he also has been at odds with Reynolds for many years."He's sort of an enigma," Burnett said. "He has put into place one of the most efficient water rights systems in the West. If you have a problem, you are assured of getting justice from Steve Reynolds."On the other hand, he has no environmental ethics at all. He can't see beyond the blinders of an engineer and appreciate the environmental catastrophes that confront us all."</text>
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<text>Geologists must admit to an ignorance of the drylands of the Earth. We do not understand them as much as we do humid regions.Earth science began in England, France. and Germany, and Europe is the only continent on Earth that does not have a true desert. Thus, the fathers of geology did not encounter examples of arid landforms. Naturally they did not write about them, and others followed suit. Even in North America, where geology has flourished during the 20th century, only five percent of the total land area is desert.Also, potential students are intimidated by deserts due to their vastness and prevailing harsh conditions. Only a handful of intrepid explorers have ever crossed the Rub Al Khali of Arabia, the Takla Makan of China, or the heart of the North African Sahara.Finally, geologists are taught to seek in situ rock samples for laboratory study. The surface of the desert is covered rock rubble and sand, derived from various sources by different forces, with few exposures of rock in place. Thus, many geologists would be at a loss for what to study and sample in a dryland environment.Those circumstances are why a scarcity of basic information about desert landscapes exists. This has in turn encouraged misconceptions about the desert.For example, some may believe that landforms in the desert were formed under dry windy environments. Not true. The basic layout of the land was completed under humid conditions in the past. Most of the features we find in today's deserts and semiarid lands are fluvial in origin, formed under wetter climate conditions. All the major sand seas of the worldΓÇöincluding the three major ergs of the Sahara and the sand seas of southeastern Arabia, northwestern China, northwestern India, central Australia and southwestern North AmericaΓÇöoccur in topographically low areas that must have served as water/sediment collection basins in much of geologic time.Some also believe that most desert surfaces are covered by sand. Not at all. Most desert surfaces are rocky and are covered by rock rubble, with occasional soil cover in the courses of dry rivers and in former lakes. Sand usually covers less than one-fifth of the surface, for example, in the Sahara, sand dunes and fields cover less than one-seventh of the land area.Others think that sand grains are formed and rounded in an aeolian (windy or wind dominated) regime. Not true. Most sand grains form by fluvial action and the process of rounding occurs in streams and other water bodies. With the onslaught of dryness, the wind sculptures the sand into dune forms. Actually, grains of sand might become larger by acquiring a coating of microscopic crystals of clay (kaolinite) and submicroscopic iron during transport by the wind. This might cause reddening of the sand as the grains are wind-transported farther away from the source.Another misconception is that nomads and Bedouins are responsible For desert formation through the process of desertification. On the contrary, nomadism developed as the only way of using the scarce resources of drylands and because rainfall is irregular and sporadic in both space and time. Land degradation is actually begun by settlement of the nomads through "aid projects" conceived to help drought victims. People and their animal herds are concentrated in small areas that cannot sustain them.Still another misunderstanding is that if the temperature of the Earth increases, the deserts expand. Actually, the reverse happens. An increase in the temperature of the atmosphere and oceans results in the increase of evaporation of water from the equatorial seas. This in turn increases the extent of the equatorial cloud belt and the resulting rain zone. The net result will be shrinkage of the desert belts that girdle Earth at approximately 15 degrees to 30 degrees north and south of the equator.We must correct these misconceptions about the arid and semiarid one-third of Earth's land area where nearly a billion people live ΓÇö not only for reasons of academic responsibility, but also because real understanding may have vast economic implications.For example, consider the concept of a vast sand dune field as a site of accumulation of sediment-laden water in the past. Some of the surface water that accumulates in the depression evaporates. However, much of it seeps through the underlying rock, through primary or secondary porosity, and remains stored as ground water. Such vast groundwater resources have been located in numerous deserts, and it is my opinion that much more is yet to be discovered.Furthermore, geologic basins tend to exist in the same area for a long time. Thus the depressions that enclose todays dune fields appear to have been sedimentary basins during much of the geologic past. Where shales are deposited, oil forms and may accumulate in structures within these basins. Only recently have geologists recognized this and begun to explore the sand seas of the world in search of petroleum deposits.It is fortunate that space technology has provided us with a new tool to study the drylands: photographs and images from Earth orbit, such as those from Landsat, Space Shuttle, and Meteosat. Because of their large areal coverage, these orbital scenes are especially helpful in mapping major structural features, recognizing regional patterns of sand distribution, studying the morphometry of dune fields, and determining the direction of sand movement. Recognition of the nature, direction and rate of movement of dunes in a desert would lessen the potential impact of their shifting sands on the works of man.The scarcity of cloud cover cover arid lands improves image quality. Also, because desert surfaces are vegetation-free, these photographs reflect the chemical composition of the exposed rocks, soils and sands. Thus, preliminary surveys that include descriptions of desert landforms and the selection of areas for detailed study and field sampling can easily be made with orbital photographs. This is particularly significant when we consider that the vastness, remoteness, and inaccessibility of many deserts make conventional ground surveys difficult and costly.Images obtained by the astronauts and by unmanned satellites such as Landsat are assisting in varied studies of drylands worldwide. The imaging radar of the Space Shuttle has also proven to be a most useful tool for desert study. In its maiden flight in 1981 it provided images of a featureless tract of the Western Desert of Egypt. Due to excessive dryness in this hyper-arid part of the northeastern Sahara, the radar waves penetrated the sand cover to unveil courses of ancient rivers. In a strip of land about 150 kilometers in length, a radar image showed three ancient rivers, 8,12, and 20 kilometers across. Field investigations uncovered artifacts of prehistoric human habitation up to 210,000 years old.In the same desert, archaeological evidence proved the alternation of wet and dry periods since that time, where wet episodes prevailed 60,000, 35,000 and 10,000 5,000 years ago. Experimental wells near the sites of the ancient rivers confirmed a ground water reserve that is capable of supporting agriculture on nearly 200,000 acres for 200 years. However, the water is "fossil" and should be considered as a valuable resource to be "mined" and used sparingly.These findings support the importance of thorough investigations of the drylands to better use them for the benefit of mankind. Such investigations must be done in a variety of arid and semiarid lands, because generalizations cannot be made and every tract of dryland has to be considered separately, and perhaps treated as a unique case. But the investigations must be conducted using the same specifications for data collection to allow meaningful correlations. Also, data must be shared among scientists who should initiate multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies of deserts and semiarid lands.In the interest of better understanding and using the drylands of the world, the "International conference on Desert Environments" was held last November in Trieste, Italy. The conference was sponsored by the Canadian International Development Agency and held under the auspices of the Third World Academy of Sciences. The objectives were to l) determine the capabilities and set the limitations of desert research institutions in the Third World; 2) review the present-day knowledge about deserts and semiarid lands in the developed world; and 3) form a worldwide network for the exchange of scientific data on the drylands of the Earth.Leaders of more than 20 desert research institutions attended the conference. They affirmed the need to acquire scientific data, particularly by remote sensing on the desert and semiarid lands. At the end of the conference, they issued this declaration:"The environment of the planet Earth is a fragile life-sustaining system. Mankind must learn to live in harmony with nature and fully understand the ecosystem of the planet, using its resources while endeavoring to do no harm."The ebb and flow of dry conditions of the Earth is a natural and inevitable process. We recognize that throughout history mankind has found ways to live in the most demanding and dangerous of conditions, including those of inhospitably dry deserts. More recently, as we have increased our knowledge of arid and semiarid lands, many governments have taken steps to increase the use of these drylands and thus modify local environmental conditions."It is imperative that we undertake a sustained effort to identify and act upon critical issues that demand better understanding, in order to limit environmental degradation. We must also carry out meaningfully cooperative research programs with the goal of a greater level of protection of the environment."Therefore, we, the undersigned participants in a Third World Academy of Sciences conference, in session at Trieste, Italy, on Wednesday, 8 November 1989, in order to improve our understanding of the drylands of the Earth, secure a worldwide sensitivity to the environment, and encourage safe and effective land-use programs, hereby pledge to work together with colleagues throughout the world to achieve these ends, and we hereby declare that the l990s shall be known as "The Decade of the Desert."Farouk El-Baz. The author is a geologist and photographer and serves as president of The Arab Society for Desert Research. Farouk El-Baz. "Decade of the Desert." Earth Science. Summer 1990. 22-24.</text>
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<text><span class="style2">arouk El-Baz. "Decade of the Desert." Earth Science. Summer 1990. 22-24.</span></text>
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<text>By John FlinnSan Francisco ExaminerSAN FRANCISCOΓÇöNot long ago, a Richmond, Calif., man came up with a revolutionary way to beat the drought: collecting the dew off his rooftop.Each day he reported his yield to the East Bay Municipal Utility District, and the numbers were astounding. The man was collecting many gallons a day.The people at the utility district were beginning to think he was on to something. Then he called back one day, very embarrassed. It turned out most of the liquid was coming from a leaking solar water heater."The numbers went down pretty dramatically after that," said Gayle Montgomery, a district spokesman. "But, hey, it was a nice try."California may be desperately short of water, but it never has nun dry of creative thinking. So as lawns turn brown and toilets go unflushed, there is no shortage of drought-busting schemes ranging from the cunningly innovative to the downright weird."The more severe the situation gets, the more we're willing to look at new things," said Suzanne Butterfield, chief of local assistance for the California Department of Water Resources.One of those is the idea of using converted oil supertankers to transport millions of gallons of British Columbia water to parched California communities. The dust-dry town of Goleta, near Santa Barbara, is seriously considering it.A company interested in the contract, Sun Belt Water Inc., says it could deliver 74 million gallons of sparkling pure Canadian aqua every 10 days.The company says it already has lined up a source for the water: the Toba Inlet, about 60 miles north of Vancouver. Snowmelt spills down the mountainside there at a rate of 200,000 acre-feet a year."We can solve the water problem for everyone along the south coast," said Jack B. Lindsey, chairman of the firm.Canadian water is not cheap. It would cost roughly $2,000 an acre-foot ΓÇö not quite as expensive as Perrier, perhaps, but considerably more than Californians are used to paying for tap water. (It's nearly 10 times what the state's largest water retailer, the Metropolitan Water District, charges its customers.)But, even at that price, Canadian water is starting to look good to Goleta and its arid neighbors. They're running out of options.Supertankers wouldn't be necessary under a plan being put forward by Los Angeles County Supervisor Kenneth Hahn. He wants to build a pair of 1,000-mile-long canals to bring down water from the Pacific Northwest.Hahn dreams of a canal that would tap into the Columbia near Portland and carry 3 million gallons a day to California. A second canal would haul water south from Idaho's Snake River.Perhaps encouraged by the enthusiasm with which Northern California has always shared its water with Los Angeles, Hahn figures the Pacific Northwest would be equally thrilled to do its part.Then there's the Rev. Robert Essig of St. Frances Cabrini Church in San Jose, who thinks giant rubber hoses could capture the water of North Coast rivers and bring it south along the seabed to the Bay Area and Southern California.And, of course, it wouldn't be a drought without someone resurrecting the old iceberg scheme. So far no politician or scientist has broached it, but local water districts are getting plenty of calls from the public.Flinn, John. "Ideas Proliferate to Bust Drought." San Francisco Examiner story in Albuquerque Tribune. 13 March 1991. D1.</text>
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<text>Flinn, John. "Ideas Proliferate to Bust Drought." San Francisco Examiner story in Albuquerque Tribune. 13 March 1991. D1.</text>
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<text>GEOTEXTILES IN WATER CONSTRUCTIONSLAND AND WATER - APRIL 1991BY ALBERT GUNKELThanks to a new trend toward nature-like reconstruction of of river banks, efforts are under way to creat conditions for a healthy natural environment capable of functioning on the basis of knowledge gained in the past decades combined with new types of geotextiles.Natural construction methods are executed primarily during the winter months when the rivers are low. Geotextile is installed between the high and the low water lines where it has been very successful. Preference is given to geotextile constructions with intergrated underbrush, because they can withstand floods having flow velosity of 5m/sec.In the spring, when the floods recede, plants washed ashore are retained by the geotextile. During the vegetation period they develop shoots and roots. Simultaneously, the layes of brush and wooden poles, which consist of different types of rose willows, start burgeoning, implanting their roots in the river bank within a short period of time, thus strengthening it to an increasing degree and creating both surface plants and solid root systems. The geotextile guards the soil against erosion and supports the growth of plants, eventually, after a period of one to two years, it simply decomposes away.Terranet, a new type of geotextile comprising both synthetic and natural fibers, was developed by the Swiss Net Company (Schweizerische Gesellschaft fur Tullindustrie AG) in Munchwilen, Canton Thurgau, Switzerland, to be used in biological engineering as an aid in the temporally limited protection of newly reconstructed natural river banks.River banks that have been washed away can be replentished from nearby construction sites with soil containing clay, sand, and pebbles. This material is then superficially covered with geotextile, thus protecting it from being washed away.In cases of steep river banks and strong water forces, the river bank can be reconstructed with the help of geotextiles and brush cuttings comprising willow branches. This construction method provides maximum strength to the river bank, since the geotextile functions as a soil anchor.In the case of superficial covering and pressure exceeding 0.5 kN/m(2), Terranet must be anchored transversely. It is important that sufficient amounts of geotextile material are present at the surface. It must be loosely layered and it is advisable to fold it under in critical areas. This material reserve allows the geolextile to lie flat against the river bank once more after the floods have receded, preventing the occurrence of hollow spaces between the underbrush and the geotextile, so that the weds and hardy herbacesus plants can penetrate the geotextile once they have germinated. In the presence of pressure below 0.5kN/m(2), it is possible to secure the geotextile in a few locations using an choring and piles. In general, it is recommended that one secur ing point be installed per square meter. The bed of river banks can be reinforced using block stone construction, bundles of embankment underbrush or wooden piles.The willows used as brush cuttings between the geotextile or as wooden piles are known to be pioneer plants and spontaneous colonizers of raw soil. Due to their strong roots, they mechanically develop the soil, thereby reinforcing it. Since their roots penetrate the soil very deeply and loosen it up, they encourage the entry of oxygen which, in turn, promotes the growth of the soil fauna. Decomposing plant parts create a layer of humus and nutrients that considerably improves the soil so that other plants, such as hardy herbaceous plants and weeds can take root. Some of these root all the way down to the bed of the river bank and can withstand a maximum water velocity of 3.7 m/sec.In the longitudinal direction (warp), Terranet consists of highstrength and UV-resistant polypropylene fibers (PP); the weft on the other hand, consists of natural ramie 'Firon' fibers.The geotextile primarily prevents newly reconstructed river banks and overhangs from slippage. The fine netting, i.e. its apertures, allows the plants to root effortlessly without being strangled. After a certain time period, when the root system has attained a certain level of strength, the natural portion of the geotextile (Firon) decomposes, leaving only the polypropylene warp fibers. In the long term, they strengthen and secure the soil. Once the Firon has decomposed, polypropylene strips remain on the surface to retain fallen leaves in the fall, thus creating humus.Due to its special characteristics, the geotextile leaves enough room for plants to grow (ramie decomposes over a period of one to two years) without endangering the stability of the river bank reconstruction.The surface of the geotextile was designed to be very rough so that plants washed ashore adhere to it or get stuck in the net. The geotextile that is integrated in the construction has a leafgreen color, which facilitates its visual integration into the reconstruction .This type of river bank reconstruction that incorporates living portions helps to recreate a natural river bank environment complete with microorganisms, insects, and plants which, in turn, restore the foundations of life for animal and human beings alike. Fish, for instance, feed on microorganisms and insects and find both shelter and breeding places in the naturally reconstructed river bank. The waterways are thus once again turned into fishing grounds for people. Hence, the ecological cycle is completely stored.Gunkel, Albert. "Geotextiles in Water Constructions." Land and Water. April 1991.</text>
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<text>Gunkel, Albert. "Geotextiles in Water Constructions." Land and Water. April 1991.</text>
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<text>THE EARTH'S SURFACE MAY BE MAINLY COVERED WITH WATER, BUT WATER WE CAN USE IS A LIMITED RESOURCEby Mary Hill Route 7, Box 124MU, Santa Fe, N.M. 87505Water, water everywhere and not a drop to drink! The ancient mariner who uttered this lament thirsted because the water he had- the "water, water everywhere"-was "bad." He was on the ocean where the salt content averages 3.5 percent. It is "good" water for fish, but not fit for human consumption-although the human body has the same salinity of the ocean.Not that we require 100 percent pure water. 'Pure' distilled water exists only in the laboratory, or in bottles of toxin free drink, for such uses as steam irons and batteries. We drink-and prefer to drink-water that has traces of various chemical elements and compounds.Most of these elements and compounds come from the Earth itself. They are substances dissolved from air, soil, and rocks. Rain water is closest to "pure," but even it contains dust from the air, and carbon dioxide from living things. It does not contain much of them-10 pounds of dissolved matter in a million pounds of rain water-but it contains enough to help it dissolve minerals in the rocks and soil. As water passes through the ground, the concentration of dissolved matter increases. The most common natural impurities are calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate. These combine to form various salts, the best known being sodium chloride, or table salt. We can tolerate a certain amount of salts. Water tastes salty to us if there are a a few thousand miligrams of sodium chloride or other salt per liter of water, or about one-seventh of a teaspoon in a teacup. Such water can be used for some crops, but if the concentration of salts is greater, most plants will die.We can drink a concenteration of 1,000 milligrams of salts per liter of water (one-twentieth teaspoon in a teacup), but it tastes extremely "hard." The three chemical substances that make most water hard are calcium, magnesium, and iron. (They are the cause of "tattletale gray" in laundry.) In fact, the hardness of water is rated according to how much calcium or magnesium carbonate it contains. Very hard water contains more than 180 milligrams per liter (1/120 teaspoon in a teacup); hard water between 121 and 180 mil ligrams per liter; moderately hard water between 61 and 120 milligrams; and soft water less than 60 milligrams or 1/360 teaspoon in a teacup. It is possible to change the hardness of water by passing the water through mineral or chemical filters that trade one element for another.Very hard water, although it can be drunk by humans and used by plants, will form scaly deposits inside pipes, boilers, and tanks. A scale coating only 1/8 inch thick causes a boiler to use 10 percent more fuel. That's why water is often softened before using. Water that is too soft may corrode metal pipes, but is delightful for washing and bathing.Some mineral constituents of water can be dangerous. For example, too much sodium, like too much table salt, is harmful to people with high blood pressure or heart trouble. Boron and fluorine, good in small amounts, can be poisonous in larger quantities.Most ground waterΓÇöfrom wells and springsΓÇöin the United States is tasty, not too salty, and not toxic. Some of it contains enough dissolved minerals to give it the tangy taste we associate with spring water.But we are by no means assured of good-tasting, non-poisonous, healthfully pure water. We must conscientiously protect our water supplies. We pour waste on the ground or into rivers in the mistaken belief that water "purifies itself." Rocks and soil do act as a filter to remove solid material, and, to a certain extent, bacteria. But we cannot ask too much of our natural-earth filter. Some bacteria and many viruses pass through our water supply.Nor can soil filter out substances dissolved in water. They have become part of the water itself and are not easily removed. This is why natural minerals that make water hard are not taken out as water percolates through the ground, nor are many industrial and municipal wastes, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and poisons.Because water is so good at carrying and holding substances in solution, we must prevent contamination of water supplies by sewage, garbage, industry, or the many poisonous and radioactive substances we need to "throw away." Life depends on how cautious we are.</text>
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<text>Hill, Mary. Route 7, Box 124MU, Santa Fe, N.M. 87505</text>
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<text>Kuehn, Glenn D. "New gene sources for development of agronomic plants with tolerances to drought and other abiotic stresses." Las Cruces, N.M. : New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute, New Mexico State University, [1989].SUBJECTS 1. Plants--Drought resistance--Genetic aspects. 2. Plant-water relationships--Genetic aspects. 3. Crops--Genetic engineering. 4. Polyamines--Synthesis--Genetic aspects. 5. Thermus thermophilus--Genetic aspects. 6. Plant molecular genetics. LOCATION Science and Engineering Library CALL NUMBER GB705 N6 N64 no.247 </text>
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<text>Kuehn, Glenn D. "New gene sources for development of agronomic plants with tolerances to drought and other abiotic stresses." Las Cruces, N.M. : New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute, New Mexico State University, [1989].</text>
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<text>If Water Is The Lifeblood of the desert, then irrigation ditches are its arteries. And March is the month the blood starts to flow. After a winter season of dredging and cleaning and burning weeds along the hundreds of miles of ditches that straddle the Rio Grande and some of our other rivers, the mayordomos (ditch bosses) begin turning on the faucets March 1 every year, allowing river water to flood the fields in the valley.An incredible system built of low-tech materials like dirt, concrete and iron fans out from the river like a web of veins, draining water from the river channel at some points, forcing it through a series of trenches and delivering much of it back to the river at points to the south.Few things bring more comfort on a warm spring or summer day than crossing a ditch and seeing brown water percolating under a band of cottonwood trees. Or taking a walk along the ditch bank, sneaking a uniquely backyard view of the countryside.As though ditch designers had an alfresco health club in mind when they took a backhoe to the earth, uncountable Rockports, Sauconies and Nike Airs hammer away at the dirt these days in the pursuit of physical vigor. Even fat-tired bikes and four-wheel-drive baby carriages move along the tree-lined arteries.But ditches were never designed for recreation. And although we think of the ditch in terms of irrigation today, directors of the state's largest modern ditch system were worried about too much water, not too little, when they first met in 1925. The problem then was a silt-filled river channel that had turned the valley into a bog. The ditch system was built foremost to drain and make more of the valley livable; irrigating was a second thought.When they built their massive system of 834 miles of canals and 404 miles of drains stretching from Cochiti to Socorro, the modern ditch builders came across scores of pre-modern ditches, the shoveled-out dirt channels called acequias that fanned river water eastward and westward to farming communities.That Spanish-speaking people would label their primitive main ditch acequia madre, or mother ditch, is a measure of how exalted these water-bearing inlets were. Today, we still exalt them and they still deliver, overseen now by ditch riders who mete out their liquid contents during the March-to-October flow.And aside from irrigation, they continue to serve up shaded paths for summer walks and, in the autumn, miles and miles of leaf- covered trails - our own haphazard version of Central Park.Linthicum, Leslie. "A Riches of Ditches." Albuquerque Journal. Sage Magazine. March 1990.</text>
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<text>Linthicum, Leslie. "A Riches of Ditches." Albuquerque Journal. Sage Magazine. March 1990.</text>
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<text>WATER OF THE WORLDby Raymond L. NaceDISTRIBUTION OF MAN'S LIQUID ASSETS IS A CLUE TO FUTURE CONTROLMost people know that water is unevenly distributed over the Earth's surface in oceans, rivers, and lakes, but few realize how very uneven the distribution actually is. It is instructive to consider the total inventory of water on the planet Earth, the areas where the water occurs, and the long-term significance of the findings.The world oceanΓÇö139 million square miles of itΓÇöcontains 317 million cubic miles of saltwater. The average depth of the ocean basins is about 12,500 feet. If the basins were shallow, seas would spread far onto the continents, and dry land areas would consist chiefly of a few major archipelagoesΓÇöhigh mountain ranges projecting above the sea.Considered as a continuous body of fluid, the atmosphere is another kind of ocean. Yet, in view of the total amount of precipitation on land areas in the course of a year, one of the most astonishing world water facts is the very small amount of water in the atmosphere at any given time. The volume of the lower 7 miles of the atmosphereΓÇöthe realm of weather phenomenaΓÇöis roughly four times the volume of the world ocean. But, the atmosphere contains only about 3,100 cubic miles of water, chiefly in the form of invisible vapor, some of which is transported overland by air currents. If all vapor were suddenly precipitated from the air onto the Earth's surface it would form a layer only about 1 inch thick. A heavy rainstorm on a given area may remove only a small percentage of the water from the airmass that passes over. How, then can some Iand areas receive, as they do, more than 400 inches of precipitation per year? How can several inches of rain fall during a single storm in a few minutes or hours? The answer is that rain-yielding airmasses are in motion, and as the water-depleted air moves on, new moisture-laden air takes its place above the area of precipitation.The source of most atmospheric water is the ocean from which it is derived by evaporation. Evaporation, vapor transport, and precipitation constitute a major arc of the hydrologic cycleΓÇöthe continuous movement of water from ocean to atmosphere to land and back to the sea. Rivers return water to the sea along one chord of the arc. In a subterranean arc of the cycle, underground bodies of water discharge some water directly into rivers and some directly into the sea.Estimated average annual evaporation from the world ocean is roughly 39 inches. The conterminous United States receives an average of 30 inches of precipitation every year, or about 1,430 cubic miles in total volume. Evapotranspiration returns approximately 21 inches of this water to the atmosphere (about 1,000 cubic miles). Obviously, some rain is water that was vaporized from the land areas and is being reprecipitated. Evidently the global hydrologic cycle, which sends water from sea-to-air-to-land areas and back to the sea again, has short circuits. These are called subcycles.There are many complexities and variations in the fate of water that falls as rain or snow. For example, high in the central Rocky Mountains of North America, the Yellowstone River heads in Yellowstone National Park just east of the Continental Divide. The river water discharges through the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers into the Gulf of Mexico about 1,600 airline miles distant from the head.On the west side of the Continental Divide, not far from the Yellowstone, rises the Snake River which flows across Idaho to join the Columbia near Pasco, Washington. Its water eventually reaches the Pacific Ocean about 700 airline miles from the source and about 2,200 miles from the mouth of the Mississippi.This is a good example of the continuous mixing and transfer of water in the hydrologic cycle. An airmass moving eastward across the Rocky Mountains contains water evaporated from the Pacific Ocean. Some of the water falls as rain or snow to the west and some to the east of the Continental Divide. Thus, two drops of rain falling side by side along the continental backbone may end up, one in the Pacific, the other in the Atlantic Ocean, although both were derived from the Pacific.No one knows how much water moves from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean by vapor transfer, precipitation, and runoff, but we do know a great deal about runoff itself. Estimated total flow into the sea from rivers in the 48 adjacent States takes place at the rate of about 1,803,000 cubic feet per second (a cubic foot is about 7.48 gallons), which amounts to approximately 390 cubic miles per year. Values for runoff (390 cubic miles) plus evaporation (1,000 cubic miles) do not quite equal the precipitation (1,430 cubic miles) because none of these values is precise. Moreover, some water is discharged into the sea directly from groundwater sources without passing through streams. The missing 40 cubic miles of water, roughly 10 percent of the value for streamflow, might represent direct ground-water discharge.Hydrologists have not generally considered that direct ground-water outflow to the sea is so large, but there is really no good basis that can be used to dispute or support what the computations seem to indicate. At any rate, the data are sufficiently accurate for the present purpose which is to show the relative magnitude of water volumes involved in the annual water cycle.Some more specific data give a good idea of the relative importance of large and small rivers in maintaining continental water balances.The Mississippi, North America's largest river, has a drainage area of 1,243,000 square miles (about 40 percent of the total area of the 48 conterminous States) and discharges at an average rate of 620,000 cubic feet per second. This amounts to some 133 cubic miles per year, or approximately 34 percent of the total discharge from all the rivers of the United States.The Columbia, nearest American competitor of the Mississippi, discharges less than 75 cubic miles per year. Relatively speaking, the great Colorado River is a dwarf, discharging only about 5 cubic miles annually.On the other hand, the Amazon, the largest river in the world, is nearly 10 times the size of the Mississippi. It discharges about 4 cubic miles per day and some 1,300 cubic miles per yearΓÇöabout three times the flow of all United States rivers.Africa's great Congo River, with a discharge of approximately 340 cubic miles per year, is the world's second largest. The estimated annual discharge of all African rivers is about 510 cubic miles.Measurements of only the few principal streams on a continent afford a basis for reasonably accurate estimation of the total runoff item in a continental water balance. The small streams are important locally, but they contribute only minor amounts of the total water discharged. Thus it is possible to estimate the total runoff of all the rivers of the world, even though many of them have not been measured accurately. Sixty-six principal rivers of the world discharge about 3,720 cubic miles of water yearly. The estimated total from all rivers, large and small, measured and unmeasured, is about 9,200 cubic miles yearly (25 cubic miles daily).Crude estimates have indicated that the total amount of water that is physically present in stream channels throughout the world at a given moment is about 300 cubic miles. Evidently, river channels on the average contain only enough water to maintain their flow for about 2 weeks. Some have much more water, others much less, but it seems to be a fair average. How, then, do rivers maintain a ilow throughout the year, even during rainless periods much longer than 2 weeks? The answer to that question will appear later in the discussion of ground water.After oceans and rivers come lakes, which can be called wide places in rivers. This is certainly true of the many small lakes that are impounded by relatively minor and geologically temporary obstructions across river channels. But no single oversimplified metaphor accurately describes all lakes, which are widely varied in their physical characteristics and the geologic circumstances under which they occur. The handsome little tarn occupying an ice-scooped basin in a glaciated alpine area is radically different from the deep and limpid Crater Lake of Oregon, which fills the crater of a now-extinct volcano. Lake Okeechobee in Florida is totally different from any of the North American Great Lakes, which occupy huge basins formed in a complex manner by glacial excavation at some places, moraine and outwash deposition at others, isostatic subsidence of that whole region of the Earth's crust, and other factors. The Great Lakes of North America, in turn, bear no resemblance to Lake Tanganyika in the great Rift Valley of Africa. Processes that are poorly understood created the rift by literally pulling two sections of the Earth's crust apart, leaving a deep, open gash part of which is occupied by the lake. And these are only a few examples of wide variations in the nature of lakes.The Earth's land areas are dotted with hundreds of thousands of lakes. Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Finland contain some tens of thousands each. But these lakes, important though they may be locally, hold only a minor amount of the world supply of fresh surface water, most of which is contained in a relatively few large lakes on three continents.Whether a lake contains freshwater or saltwater makes a considerable difference in its usefulness to man, so the Earth's greatest lakes are considered in both of the categories, fresh and salt.The volume of all the large freshwater lakes in the world aggregates nearly 30,000 cubic miles, and their combined surface area is about 330,000 square miles. "Large" is a relative term that requires explanation . For this article, a lake is called large if its contents are 5 cubic miles or more. Thus the listing includes Dubawnt Lake, Canada ( about 6 cubic miles), but excludes the Zurichsee of Switzerland (about 1 cubic mile). The range of volume among the large lakes is enormous, from a lower limit of 5 cubic miles to an upper one of 6,300 cubic miles in Lake Baikal in Asiatic Russia, the largest and deepest single body of freshwater in existence. Some appreciation of its volume may be gained from the realization that Lake Baikal alone contains nearly 300 cubic miles more water than the combined contents of the five North American Great Lakes. The Great Lakes loom large on a map, but their average depth is considerably less than that of Baikal.Nevertheless, North American lakes are a major element in the Earth's water balance. The Great Lakes, plus other large lakes in North America (chiefly in the 48 States and Canada) contain about 7,800 cubic miles of waterΓÇö26 percent of all liquid, fresh, surface water in existence.Similarly, the large lakes of Africa contain 8,700 cubic miles, or nearly 29 percent of the total freshwater supply. Asia's large lakes contain about 6,400 cubic miles, or 21 percent of the total, nearly all of which is in Lake Baikal.Lakes on these three continents account for roughly 75 percent of the world's fresh surface water. Large lakes on other continentsΓÇöEurope, South America, and AustraliaΓÇöhave only about 720 cubic miles, or roughly 2 percent of the total. All that remains to fill the hundreds of thousands of rivers and lesser lakes that are found throughout the world is less than one-fourth of the total fresh surface water.Saline lakes are equivalent in magnitude to freshwater lakes. Their total area is 270,000 square miles and their total volume is about 25,000 cubic miles. The distribution, however, is quite different. About 19,240 cubic miles (75 percent of the total saline volume) is in the Caspian Sea, and most of the remainder is in Asia. North America's shallow Great Salt Lake is comparatively insignificant with 7 cubic miles.All these water sources we have discussed are the obvious ones. There is anotherΓÇösoil moistureΓÇöthat may be the most significant segment of the world's water supply because of the key role played by plants in the food chain. Some plants grow directly in water or marshy ground, but by far the greater mass of vegetation on Earth lives on "dry" land. This is possible because the land is really dry at just a few places, and often only temporarily. How dry is dust? The dust of a dry dirt road may contain up to 15 percent of water by weight. However, plants cannot grow and flourish with so little water because the soil holds small percentages of moisture so tenaciously that plant roots cannot extract it. Aside from desert plants, which store water in their own tissues during infrequent wet periods, land plants flourish only where there is extractable water in the soil. Inasmuch as a quite ordinary tree may withdraw and transpire about 50 gallons of water per day, frequent renewals of soil moisture, either by rain or by irrigation, are essential. The average amount of water held as soil moisture at any given time is on the order of 6,000 cubic miles for the world as a wholeΓÇöan insignificant percentage of the Earth's total water, but vital to life. Relatively little vegetation receives artificial irrigation, and practically all of it depends on natural soil moisture, which, in turn, depends on orderly and timely operation of the hydrologic cycle.Another little-considered water reservoir has been known to man for thousands of years. Scripture (Genesis 7:11) on the Noachian Deluge states that "the fountains of the great deep (were) broken up," and Exodus, among its many references to water and to wells, refers (20:4) to "water under the earth." Many other chronicles show that man has known from ancient times that there is much water underground. Only recently has he begun to appreciate how much.Beneath most land areas of the world there is a zone where the pores of rocks and sediments are completely saturated with water. Hydrologists call this ground water, and the upper limit of the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table may be right at the land surface, as in a marsh, or it may lie hundreds of feet below the land surface, as in some arid areas. Water in the unsaturated zone above the water table is called vadose water and includes the belt of soil moisture. Water in the intermediate part of this zone has passed through the soil and is percolating downward toward the water table.The world volume of that part of the vadose water below the belt of soil moisture is probably somewhat more than that of soil moistureΓÇösay 10,000 cubic miles. It is highly important because, although it is not extractable by man, it is potential ground-water recharge, and groundwater is extractable. Each influx of water from precipitation on the land surface, followed by percolation through the soil, provides an increment of recharge to the ground water.Below the water table, to a depth of half a mile in land areas of the Earth's crust, there is about 1 million cubic miles of ground water. An equal if not greater amount is present at a greater depth down to some 10,000 to 15,000 feet, but this deeper water circulates sluggishly because the rocks are only slightly permeable. Much of the deep-lying water is not economically recoverable for human use, and a good deal of it is strongly mineralized.Ground water flows through moderately to highly permeable strata, which are called aquifers, at rates of a few inches to perhaps several hundred feet per day; 40 to 50 feet per day would be a rather high rate of flow. Depending on how far the ground water must travel to reach a surface discharge area, water in shallow to moderately deep zones may remain underground from a few hours to 100 years or longer. Water at great depth may take tens or hundreds of thousands of years to pass through an aquifer, and some is completely stagnant.The volume of ground water in the upper half mile of the continental crust probably is about 3,000 times greater than the volume of water in all rivers at any one time, and nearly 20 times greater than the combined volume of water in all rivers and lakes. It is easy to see, therefore, that ground-water reservoirs have tremendous importance as equalizers of streamflow. Under natural conditions, most ground-water reservoirs are full to overflowing, and the overflow water provides what is called the base flow of surface streams enabling them to flow even during long, rainless periods and after winter snows have melted.According to calculations, the volume of ground water in storage in the United States to a depth of half a mile is equivalent to the total of all recharge during the last 150 years. This estimate is crude, but it helps to emphasize the important fact that groundwater reserves, although immense, are not wholly self-renewing annually. At places where they have been depleted by pumpage, they might take many decades to recover even if pumping were stopped completely.Consider, for example, a location in the dry Southwestern United States where annual recharge to an aquifer is only two-tenths of an inch of water. In such areas, it is not uncommon to pump 2 feet or more of water per year for irrigation or other uses. In this over-simplified example, if the entire aquifer were pumped at that rate, yearly pumpage would be equivalent to 120 years' recharge, and 10 years of pumping would remove a 1,200-year accumulation of water. Recharge during the pumping period would be negligible. Mechanical problems and economic factors would prevent complete emptying of an aquifer, but the example is valid in principle.The next big items on the water-balance sheet are icecaps and glaciers. They may seem unimportant in the water cycle because, although the ice masses alternately shrink or grow a little from time to time, new ice is added about as fast as old ice melts. The polar ice masses, however, have a great influence on weather, and everything that happens in the polar regions indirectly affects everyone throughout the world (NATURAL HISTORY, October 1963). Moreover, if a shift in climate led to extensive melting of icecaps, there would be a rise in sea level with important effects in all low-lying coastal areas.Mountain glaciers, such as those of the Alps in Europe (after which alpine glaciers are named), the Himalayas of Asia, and the Cascades of North America, are like average rivers in some respects. They are important locally, but they contain an insignificant fraction of the world's water. The total volume of all alpine glaciers and small icecaps in the world is only about 50,000 cubic miles(comparable to the combined volume of large saline and fresh lakes).An alpine glacier is one that rises in mountainous uplands and, by plastic deformation, flows along a valley. A continental glacier, or icecap, is one that is plastered over the landscape, mountain and valley alike. Icecaps tend to flow radially outward from their center of accumulation. Wastage occurs by sublimation from the surface and by melting or caving away around the periphery. Average icecaps, like those on Novaya Zemlya, Iceland, and Ellesmere Land, are analogous to average lakes. They are locally important, but hold an insignificant share of the world's water and only a small part of the total volume of perennial ice.The Greenland icecap is an entirely different matter. About 667,000 square miles in area and averaging nearly 5,000 feet in thickness, its total volume is about 630,000 cubic miles. If melted, it would yield enough water to maintain the Mississippi River for somewhat more than 4,700 years. Even so, this is less than 10 percent of the total volume of icecaps and glaciers. The greatest single item in the water budget of the world, aside from the ocean itself, is the Antarctic ice sheet.Since the advent of the International Geophysical Year, 1957, considerable information has been accumulated about Antarctica. Data on the thickness of the ice sheet are relatively scarce, but there is enough information to permit an approximate estimate. The area of the ice sheet is about 6 million square miles, and the total volume, therefore, is between 6 and 7 million cubic miles, or some 85 percent of all existing ice and about 64 percent of all water outside the oceans.The hydrologic importance of the continent and its ice may be illustrated briefly. If the Antarctic icecap were melted at a suitable uniform rate it could feed:1. The Mississippi River for more than 50,000 years;2. All rivers in the United States for about 17,000 years;3. The Amazon River for approximately 5,000 years; or4. All the rivers in the world for about 750 years.The statistics about water given here are rather simple, but they are sufficiently important to tabulate in order to get them more clearly in mind. The table on pages 10 and 11 gives a comparative view of the world's water.About 97 percent of all water in the world is in the oceans. Most of the remainder is frozen on Antarctica and Greenland. Thus, man must get along with the less than 1 percent of the world's water that is directly available for freshwater use. Obviously, he must find much more effective ways of managing if he is to prosper.Water is a global concern. The water cycle recognizes no national boundaries. Man has become so numerous and his activities so extensive that he has begun to affect the water cycleΓÇöcertainly on a regional scale and very likely on a global scale. To learn more about the world's water and how to use it, many countries have joined together in a programΓÇöthe International Hydrologic DecadeΓÇöaimed at overcoming on a global scale the now-existing critical deficiency in hydrological knowledge.Nace, Raymond L. "Water of the World." U.S. Government Printing Office: 1984-421-618/107</text>
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<text>By Geoffrey O'Gara NORTH OF MUDDY CREEK, Fremont County, Wyo.ΓÇö"A lot of people laughed when we got this land," said Mike Donelson, driving along a ditch of quiet blue water running in a slow curving arc alongside his fields. "But it's been about 19 years, and we're still here." Still here, but for how long? That's a question asked by the "For Sale" signs along the farm fences near Ocean Lake, here in Wyoming's Wind River Valley. It's answered partially by the farmers north of Riverton who, caught in a water war between the state and the Arapaho and Shoshone tribes, say they would gladly sell out if they could find buyers. Donelson is not one of them. "Some of us don't want to go," he said during a tour of his farm and the Midvale Irrigation District near Riverton. "To be a farmer, you've got to be an optimist." His family has a long history here. Donelson's grandfather arrived around the turn of the century as a horsetrader in Riverton with a permit to trade on the reservation. As a boy, Donelson learned to fish at his grandfather's place in the Owl Creek MountainsΓÇöon land that once belonged to Indians. For most of the some 650 full- and part-time farmers in Midvale, however, optimism rises and falls with the water in the ditch. This water has been virtually unlimited for the past 70 years, generously subsidized by a federally financed dam and canal system. But few of the non-Indians on the Midvale ditches had any notion that they were actually slaking the thirst of their crops with Indian water. Now they know, and they're frightened. Last year the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that the tribes of the Wind River Reservation nave rights to 500,717 acre-feet of water, a little more than half the normal flow of the Wind River and its tributaries. State officials are frightened, too. Midvale alone contributes some $20 million to the economy, and there are several smaller irrigation projects on the Wind River that also could be affected. The High Court awarded the water for agricultural use, but for the immediate future the tribes aren't able to build an expensive irrigation system. So for now they want some of their water left flowing in the river so they can plant fish and attract anglers to the lower Wind River, which has been periodically sucked dry by irrigators. The tribes also want to regulate water use and quality on the reservation, where the state has long claimed jurisdiction but has rarely provided any regulatory service. And, someday, the tribes would like to realize their own farming dreams. Gary Collins, an Arapaho rancher and former chairman of the Arapaho Business Council, stands on a ridge between the Wind River and the Little Wind, about 25 miles from Mike Donelson's place, looking south across a greening valley with a pride not unlike Donelson's. Collins' great-grandmother assembled patches of farmland here when access was by horse and buggy along rough trails paralleling the Little Wind. His father was born in a tent beneath a gnarled cottonwood across the Little Wind, and that tree stands by the house where the Collinses now live. Gary's great-grandmother, Edith Oldman Collins, held onto the family's "allotments"ΓÇöpieces of land within the reservation distributed to tribal members for private ownership from 1887 to 1934. Today Collins can point to a patchwork of fields still held by his family, but their irrigation systems are in poor repair. Meanwhile, many other Indians have sold their land or have lost it in debt sales. Some of the prime farmland here now belongs to non-Indians. Tribal members recall that non-IndiansΓÇösometimes their childhood schoolmatesΓÇötook some of the reservation's best resources, causing bitterness. As non-Indian farmers in projects north of the Wind River wonder whether generations of hard work will be lost in a water-starved barley crop, Indians to the south see their newly confirmed water rights as a balancing of old wrongs. "There's as much pain on this side of the river as there is on the other," said Collins. Collins also helps manage the Arapaho Farm, a tribal venture adjacent to his family's land that will bring 120 acres back into cultivation this year using tribal water. The farm, acquired three years ago, now provides an opportunity for eight young members of the tribe to learn how to farm. More jobs will be created as the farm's size expands to a planned 3,000 acres. It's a modest beginning, but Collins still suffers snubs at the local farm implement dealership, although the tribes are among its best customers. "It's going to take a generation," said Collins, sipping coffee with Fred Echohawk, a Pawnee from Arizona who came here two years ago to oversee the farm operation. "Most people on the reservation don't know how to do this. You might even say we're where Midvale was in the 1930s." The CollinsesΓÇöGary, his father, his brother Rusty, and their familiesΓÇö control about 1,500 acres of land along the Little Wind, irrigated from the river and from Ray Lake. They raise hay and run a cow-calf operation. They still hold his great-grandmother's allotment in Riverview, which pulls water from the LeClair Ditch, one of several primarily non-Indian systems that could be affected by future tribal water usage. When Collins was young there was no running water, no telephone and no electricity at the place where he still lives. He went to college and then worked for International Paper. In 1983 he returned to the reservation, where he is now bringing up three children, aged eight to 16, as a single father. Their yard is cluttered with ancient machinery and tottering shedsΓÇö"an antique shop in disguise"ΓÇöthat mirror the poor condition of the reservation's aging ditches. The ditches, their sides caved in and headgates bent, have suffered from a dismal lack of funding from the BIA, says Dave Allison, the agency's Wind River superintendent. He contrasts his agency's paltry support of the Arapaho Farm here with the much more generous federal investments made by the Bureau of Reclamation to projects like Midvale.Indeed, the contrast is striking. Midvale's system is trim and clean. Everywhere one goes, system improvements are visible: new gauges, buried lateralsto reduce evaporation, tile drains in the fields to keep the water table from rising, cement "tongues" in the "drops" to trap the silt, and even duck ponds at the ends of the lateral ditches.Midvale irrigators pay for these improvements through a $14.50 an-acre assessment that supports an annual irrigation district budget of about $1 million. But they only pay $1.25 an acre-foot to the Bureau of Reclamation for building their main water-supply system. This long-term loan payback to the federal treasury, lent at low interest, amounts to a substantial federal subsidy that critics now say promotes inefficient water use. Even Midvale admits that it costs BuRec at least $35 an acre-foot to deliver the water to its irrigators. The first farmers who tried to make it on Donelson's landΓÇöpart of what is called Division III of the Midvale Irrigation DistrictΓÇöfailed. They homesteaded the land in the 1950s and then got the federal government to buy them out in the 1960s. Donelson had grown up on his father's homestead next to Ocean Lake. Returning from military duty as a helicopter pilot in 1971, he and his wife, Charlone, picked up over 1,000 acres of unwanted Division III land and moved out near the Owl Creek Mountains. Initially, there were no telephones, and mail was delivered only three times a week. Even today, town hasn't moved any closer: the Donelson children, Stacey, 13, and Eric, 11, leave for school at 7:15 a.m. and return at 4:45 p.m. Donelson winters brood cows, raises hay and corn for silage, and plants 167 acres of malt barley for the Coors brewery. He's gone ahead and seeded 100 acres of new alfalfa this year, which means he'll need more water from the ditch in the fall. Bill Brown, a Midvale farmer and the project's manager, says that's a chance few Midvale farmers will take these days, but Donelson figures he had to reseed this year or see his production drop off. Brown said no one in the project can afford the "insurance" of buying tribal water, which has been offered at $10 an acre-foot. The district, he said, has $46,000 in unpaid assessments from farms that have gone belly-up or are about to. "The cowboy's the only one who's making money," said Dick Donelson, Mike's father, chuckling as he sipped coffee in Donelson's house. Such worries may sit lighter on white-haired Dick Donelson because he no longer farms. His place was sold last year. That's part of the economic cycle for Midvale irrigators, says his son. "Where the farmer gets his reward is when he retires and sells out," Donelson continues. "We've had several people who are ready to retire now. Their whole life's work is tied up in their farms. But they can't sell them. Now, faced with this water deal, grown men have called and actually cried." Midvale officials say they've bent over backwards to make their system more efficient, and to improve wildlife habitat in the process. They are infuriated when tribal or federal officials criticize their system. Catherine Vandemoer, the tribal water engineer, insists that there is enough water to satisfy tribal water rights and supply irrigators too, but only if the irrigators change their ways. "They could use their water much more efficiently than they do," she contends. The irrigators achieve about 48 percent efficiency, which means about 48 percent of the diverted water actually gets to the crops, while the rest evaporates, leaks from the canals or returns to the river. The non-Indians say that's an excellent rate of water consumption, but tribal water experts say 70 percent efficiency or higher is possible. Richard Baldes, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service project leader in Lander and a Shoshone himself, blames irrigators for damaging a river that he contends could be one of "the last jewels" among wild trout streams in the United States. Sediment collected at Diversion Dam ruins spawning beds when it's released into the river, Baldes says. Bill Brown counters that Midvale, in regulating flows, actuany has helped the river. "He [Baldes] can plan until he's blue in the face and there'll be nothing but trash fish" in the Lower Wind, says Brown. Midvale has changed its sedi- ment-flushing practices, he adds, but can't prevent naturally occurnng sediment. Baldes arranged for his agency to plant rainbow trout in the river earlier this summer, but stopped when the entire Wyoming congressional delegation protested. But conservation groups, led by the National Wildlife Federation, then stepped in to plant more fish. Fish and Wildlife then said it would resume in late August. Both tribal and state officials blame the federal government for promising more water than the Wind River system can deliver. With an average annual rain- fall of only 14 inches, the Midvale farm- ers depend on the water delivered by the big Wyoming Canal built by BuRec.The tribes' share of that water was unknown until last year's U.S. Supreme Court decision. The court awarded the tribes the lion's share. That ruling also gave the tribes the senior water right: Midvale's rights date only to 1906, compared to the tribes' 1868, the year the United States signed a treaty establishing the Shoshone and Arapaho reservation. However, state officials are so far refusing to recognize the tribes' demand to use their water as instream flow to support a trout fishery. As long as there is enough water in the river and stored in Bull Lake, the reservoir built by the Bureau of Reclamation, the change in water rights doesn't really matter. But if a scarcity develops, the state will be required to reduce the diversions taken by Midvale and other non-Indian users in order to leave enough water downstream for the tribes' trout-fishery scheme. Midvale has backup water stored in Bull Lake now, which may be enough to cover any shortage of river water this year. But heavy use of stored water this year could jeopardize next year's supplies. This is why the tribes' water engineer, Catherine Vandemoer, is insisting that Wyoming's state engineer, Jeff Fassett, recognize the new tribal rights now. Fassett and Gov. Mike Sullivan have refused to honor the tribes' claim to a streamflow of 252 cubic feet per second of water. Even after Interior Department's top attorney, Tom Sansonetti, backed the tribes' computations last month, the Wyoming state govemment still balked. So on July 30 the tribes filed a lawsuit in state court to order Fassett to regulate the Big Wind River to protect the tribes' trout scheme. Vandemoer said the suit is "in anticipation of river flows going down," and that the river's flow had akeady slowed to 220 cfs twice in July because of non-Indian diversions. But Sullivan earlier this month continued to stiff-arm the issue, saying the Tribes are pursuing "a national agenda" rather than trying to negotiate a solution. All of this has left non-lndian irrigators angry and scared for their future. And Indian water users, having finally "won" the battle for control of their destiny, are finding that old prejudices, lack of money, and legal impediments are still preventing them from managing their hard-won resources. The Collins and Donelson families, meanwhile, are putting water on their fields and working 12-hour days to keep the ditches and machinery running. Why the hard work, when the future is so uncertain? "It's a quality of living," said Mike Donelson, "not necessarily the material thingsΓÇöand the fact you're with your family. My kids are learning how to work, and in the summertime we're all here for lunch. This means they can know their parents." Over at Gary Collins' place, the Arapaho looked up toward the Wind River Mountains, which were shrouded in welcome rain clouds. "It gives me more incentive to do this stuff down here in order to save what's up there," he said. "The basic family unit, that's what we have to bring back here, by working in the fields." Can these two families ever find a common ground? When a part broke on Donelson's scraper the other day, he went to the dealer in Riverton for a replacement. The dealer said another farmer had bought the last part in stock. So Donelson did what farmers do; he drove to the other farmer's place to see if he could borrow the part. The other farmer, as it turned out, didn't need the part right away; he had bought it for a spare. So Donelson took it, and as soon as the dealer restocks his supplies, Donelson will drive back over to the Little Wind with it. To Rusty Collins' place. Geoffrey O'Gara, a former HCN editor, reports for the Casper Star Tribune from Lander, Wyoming. O'Gara, Geoffrey. "Waterless in Wind River?" High Country News. 27 August 1990. Pp 1, 10, 11.</text>
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<text>O'Gara, Geoffrey. "Waterless in Wind River?" High Country News. 27 August 1990. Pp 1, 10, 11.</text>
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<text>PARADE MAGAZINE October 22, 1989ARE YOU DRINKING ENOUGH WATER?It's a simple way to avoid: excess body fat, poor muscle tone, digestive problems, toxins, joint and muscle soreness and - believe it or not - water retention.By Leroy R. Perry Jr.WATER IS, BY FAR, THE MOST ABUDANT SUBSTANCE ON EARTH AND IN OUR BODIES . A human embryo is more than 80 percent water, a newborn baby about 74 percent and a normal adult about 60 percent to 70 percent water. Next to air, water is the substance most necessary for our survival. Everything in our bodies occurs in a water medium. We can go without food for two months or more, but without water we can only survive a few days .Yet most people have no idea how much water they should be drinking. In fact, many Americans live from day to day in a dehydrated stateΓÇöthat is, they don't drink enough water.The physiology of water. As the late Dr. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, the discoverer of Vitamin C, said: "there is no life without water...water is part and parcel of the living machinery." Without water, we'd be poisoned to death by our own waste products and toxins resulting from metabolism.When the kidneys remove wastes such as uric acid, urea and lactic acid, those wastes must be dissolved in water. So if there isn't enough water, wastes are not removed as effectively, and it may be damaging to the kidneys. Water also is vital to digestion and metabolism, acting as a medium for various enzymatic and chemical reactions in the body. It carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells thorough the blood. Water helps to regulate our body temperature through perspiration, which dissipates excess heat and cools the body. Water also lubricates our joints. This is particularly important if you're arthritic, have chronic musculoskeletal problems or are athletically active.We even need water to breathe. Our lungs must be moistened by water to facilitate the intake of oxygen and excretion of carbon dioxide. We lose approximately a pint of liquid each day just exhaling!So, if you don't drink enough water to be in "fluid balance," as doctors call it, you can impair every aspect of your body's physiological function. And the more you exercise, the more water you need to keep your body in fluid balance. Dr. Howard Flaks is a bariatric physician in Beverly Hills, Calif. (Bariatrics is the branch of medicine dealing with obesity.) He says, "As a result of not drinking enough water, many people encounter such problems as excess body fat, poor muscle tone and size, decreased digestive efficiency and organ function, increased toxicity in the body, joint and muscle soreness (particularly after exercise) and water retention."Water retention? If you're not drinking enough, your body starts retaining water to compensate for this shortage. So, paradoxical as it may seem, the way to eliminate fluid retention is to drink more water, not less."Proper water intake is the key to weight loss," says Dr. Donald Robertson, director of the Southwest Bariatric Nutrition Center in Scottsdale, Ariz. "If people who are trying to lose weight don't drink enough water, the body can't metabolize the fat, they retain fluid, which keeps weight up, and the whole procedure that we're trying to set up falls apart."How much water should you drink? Of course, overweight people are not the only ones who need to drink a lot of water. We all do. Count the glasses if you must to ensure that you get the proper amount."I 'd say the minimum amount a healthy person should drink is 10 eight-ounce glasses a day," says Dr. Flaks. "And you need to drink more if you're overweight, exercise a lot or live in a hot climate. Overweight people should drink an extra glass for every 25 pounds they exceed their ideal weight."At the International Sportsmedicine Institute, where we work with Olympic and professional athletes from around the world, we have developed a formula for water intake that accommodates athletes and nonathletes alike. We suggest a daily water intake of 1/2 ounce per pound of body weight if you're a nonactive person (that's 10 eight-ounce glasses a day if your weight is 160 pounds), and 2/3 ounce per pound if you're an active, athletic person (13 to 14 eight-ounce glasses a day if you're 160 pounds) . This ISI formula, inspired by East German physicians, has been used with great success for almost two decades.Your water intake should be spread judiciously throughout the day, including the evening. Dr. Flaks cautions against drinking more than four glasses in any given hour. And you should always check with your physician before embarking on a regimen of increased water intake.You may be wondering: If I drink this much water, won't I constantly be running to the bathroom? Initially, it has been observed, the bladder is hypersensitive to the increased amount of fluid, and you have to urinate frequently. But after a few weeks, your bladder calms down, and you urinate less frequently but in larger amounts.Water vs. other beverages. There is a difference between pure water and other beverages that contain water. Biochemically, water is waterΓÇöobviously you can get it consuming such beverages as fruit juice, soft drinks, beer, coffee and tea. Unfortunately, while such drinks contain water, they also may contain substances that are not healthyΓÇöand actually contradict some of the positive effects of the added water. As Dr. Jerzy Meduski, a medical doctor and biochemist in Los Angeles, says: "Beer contains water, but it also contains alcohol, which is a toxic substance." And caffeinated beverages like coffee stimulate the adrenal glands, while fruit juices contain a lot of sugar and stimulate the pancreas. Soda contains sodium. Such drinks may tax the body more than they cleanse it.Another problem with these beverages is that you lose your taste for water.The way to interpret all this therefore, is that the recommended daily water intake means just that...water!Tap water or bottled water? It's difficult to speak in generalities about water quality in America, because it varies from location to location - and even from time to time at the same tap!"Some communities don't even have to treat their water," says Eric Draper, campaigns director of the Clean Water Action Project, a Washington D.C. - based activist group involved with water issues. "Essentially, the raw water they get from the ground is fine for drinking. In other areas the water source is very polluted, and no matter how sophisticated the treatment and filtration, some of the chemicals are going to get through."Utilities are required by law to test the water they provide to consumers. Unfortunately, they're not required to test the water at your tap. And a lot can - and apparently does - happen to water from the time it leaves the treatment facility until it comes out of your tap.Gene Rosov, president of WaterTest Corp., the nation's largest independent drinking-water testing laboratory, has testified before Congress on water quality. He says, "I believe that the majority of health-related risks that are present in drinking water are a result of contamination added after the water leaves the treatment and distribution plant."The reasons for this, he says, fall largely into three categories: 1) Contaminants, such as lead, entering the water as it flows through the pipes to your tap. 2) Back flow into the water line, resulting from air-conditioners, stopped-up toilets and sinks. 3) By products of chlorination,the so-called trihalomethanes (which are suspected carcinogens), formed chlorine acts on debris in the water. An excess of particulate matter in the pipes results in greater trihalomethane levelsΓÇöespecially if the water sits around in the pipes for a while.Bottled water has become a $2 billion business in this country. And one might ask: Is bottled water the l00 percent-safe alternative to tap water?Unfortunately, the answer seems to be "no." Both California and New York did studies on bottled water and found many of the same impurities that are present in tap water, although the International Bottled Water Association has charged that both studies were flawed."People assume that when they buy bottled water, they're getting a better quality water than when they turn on their tap," Rosov points out. "It's not always true.""We did a survey of more than 100 bottled waters. The bottom line of the study was three points: I) Good-quality bottled water and good-quality municipal water are not that different. 2) The decision to drink bottled water is an aesthetic choice (based on how the water tastes), and that aesthetic choice is usually the compelling reason. 3) You can't shower with bottled water."That last point is a reference to the fact that many contaminants in water are skin-absorbed (when you're taking a shower, for instance) while others are respirated (we breathe them in). Radon, a carcinogen, is breathed in when we take a shower.We live in a chemicalized world. The fact is that we can never be 100 percent sure that what we drink or eat is 100 percent safe. But let's not forget that the U.S. probably has one of the safest water supplies in the world. In comparison millions die each year in Third World countries from water contamination. Our challenge is how to make America's relatively good situation even better.Our individual responsibility. Concern about the quality of our water has led to a boom in home water-treatment sales. While sales of bottled water are increasing by 10 to 15 percent annually, water-treatment sales are growing at a rate of 20 percent or more a year.Various types of water treatments are available, including reverse osmosis, activated carbon filters, distillation, ion exchange (water softeners) and ultraviolet treatment. No single technique can remove all contaminants. Each has its own strengthens and weaknesses. The type you get should be determined by the type of contamination in your water.If you're thinking of buying a home-treatment unit, the first step is to have your water tested. A large independent lab like WaterTest can do it, or call your health department for a referral. In fact, testing may be a good idea whether you're thinking of getting a unit or not. How else are you going to determine the quality of your water?Testing your water for a wide spectrum of chemicals and other pollutants can be quite expensiveΓÇö$200 or more. You may choose to test simply for radon and lead, "the two worst contaminants, ' according to WaterTest's Gene Rosov, "because radon, which can cause cancer, kills more people in America than any other water contaminant, and lead affects so many and targets infants and pregnant women [lead impairs the development of brain cells in children]."In the final analysis, to ensure clean water for our families and the generations to come, we must:I) Continue to fight for clean-water legislation and support those who are dedicated to environmental preservation.2) Test our water to make sure it's safe. 3) Use proper filtering systems to remove possible contaminants.4) Not waste water.For more information. To learn more about water and your health, send a self-addressed stamped envelope to the Foundation for Athletic Research & Education, c/o International Sportsmedicine Institute, 3283 Motor Ave., West Los Angeles, Calif. 90034.To learn about evaluating your water, write to WaterTest Corp., Dept. P, P.O. Box 6360, Manchester, N.H. 03108.Several booklets discussing water quality have been published for consumers. Safety on Tap:A Citizen's Drinking Water Handbook ($10.45) is published by the League of Women Voters, Dept. P, 1730 M St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Drinking Water: A Community Action Guide ($3) is published by Concern Inc ., Dept. P, 1794 Columbia Road, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009. Or write to Is Your Drinking Water Safe?, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, WH550, 401 M St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460, for an EPA publication.</text>
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<text>Perry, Leroy R., Jr. "Are You Drinking Enough Water?" Parade Magazine. 22 October 1989.</text>
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<text>By Alex RothJOURNAL STAFF WRITERLast month was the wettest July Albuquerque's seen in 16 yearsΓÇöa result of more moisture sweeping in from the Gulf of Mexico and slow-moving weather fronts.Tuesday night's thunderstorm gave the city a total 2.36 inches of rain for JulyΓÇöthe most rain that has fallen in the month since 1974, according to the National Weather Service. It was more than an inch above July's normal rainfall total of 1.3 inches.It has pushed this year's rainfall total to 5.56 inches, above the normal of 4 inches for this time according to Ed Mortimer, a forecaster for the service. The average rainfall for the full year is 8.12 inches.One reason for the high total so far is that a high-pressure system in the Southeast caused moisture over the Gulf of Mexico to sweep counterclockwise into the Southwest, Mortimer said.A storm front hovered over the city in the middle of July, leaving 0.39 inches of rain on July 13 and 1.12 inches in a torrential downpour on July 14. The two days had the two highest rainfall totals for the month, followed by Tuesday's rainfall of 0.34 inches.Mortimer added that the 2.36 inches "only measures how much rain actually fell in the rain bucket (at Albuquerque International Airport)." Other parts of the city, especially the Northeast Heights, received more.Roth, Alex. "2.36 Inches Soak City in Wet July." Albuquerque Journal. 2 August 1990. D1.</text>
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<text>Roth, Alex. "2.36 Inches Soak City in Wet July." Albuquerque Journal. 2 August 1990. D1.</text>
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<text>The notion that panels of mowed grass should serve as the prime carpet within our landscapes comes to Westerners as a historical hand-me-down. The West was settled mostly by people from the Eastern United States and Northern EuropeΓÇöplaces where green grass grows so easily it just about comes with the mortgage.But every part of the populated West is too arid for green grass to grow naturally throughout the year. The map below shows why: from May through October, the West gets so little rain that grass has to be sustained with piped-in water. And lawn grass generally requires more water per square foot than anything else that we grow.Western droughts, population growth, and a water-conservative futureThe amount of water needed to maintain lawns began to matter with the droughts of the '70s. And droughts continue to come upon us, with last winter's precipitation well below average for much of the West. Even in a wet year, there's a limit to how much water can be stored. Since the West is the country's fastest-growing region, it seems logical that, as the population continues to grow, Westerners are going to have to conserve more water.Water shortages affect everyone. Though agriculture uses about 83 percent of California's water, homeowners, municipalities, and industry also face a future of increasing frugality with their share of this precious resource.Think about how water-greedy grass is, and then ask: do we really need all the mowed turf we maintain? You may very well decide that you don't need the unused portions enough to continue supplying the water they demand.You have many optionsNature and the nursery industry offer many attractive, low-growing alternatives that require only 10 to 15 percent of the water grass needs. That's the way it has worked for us at Sunset.The year before last, we replaced nearly an acre of unused lawn around the fronts of our buildings in Menlo Park, California, with five different kinds of low-water-use ground covers. You can read about what we did and how we did it in our September 1989 issue.These days, our water-conserving ground covers which use only a sixth to a tenth of the water the grass neededΓÇöare looking handsomer by the month, with more variety and seasonal interest than the lawns had. And they've offered us an unexpected but quite impressive dividend: they have required much less upkeep than turf, saving us a good deal of both timeand dollars.Along with plants, you also have another choice: inert ground covers, including gravel, crushed rock, concrete pavers, flagstone, and brick. In the examples on the following pages, notice the close association of paving materials with ground covers, shrubs, trees, and structuresΓÇöavoiding the parking-lot look you'd get if you just paved over where a big lawn had been.When you plan a low-water-use garden to replace a lawn, you have an opportunity to create a unique environment.Look at the seven lawn replacements shown on these pages and we think you'll agreeΓÇöbesides saving a great amount of water, gardens without lawns can be totally satisfying and useful. Each garden shown here meets its owners' needs, with a greater diversity of plants, flowers, and surfaces than before.From planning to replanting, here are tips to help you make the transition from lawn to low-water-use garden.Two Sunset books can get you startedTo choose plants to replace the removed lawn, consult the Sunset Western Carden Book. Its listings of drought-tolerant trees, shrubs, vines, perennials, bulbs, and annualsΓÇöwith climate zones where they growΓÇöoffer you many ideas.Also check a recent Sunset book, Water-wise Gardening. It contains a detailed chapter on planning and design, and its watering chapter describes the latest advances in drip systems. The "Plants at a Glance" section fills you in on some 350 water-thrifty trees, shrubs, vines, and perennialsΓÇöincluding ground covers.Other steps to a new landscapeNow is the time to make all parts of the garden function smoothly. Check walks, drives, and entry landings. Do walkways take people where they want to go? Do people have space to open car doors and get out comfortably? A professional designer can help.The hotter your climate, the more you need to provide at least partial shade over paving or stone during hottest hours of the day to reduce heat buildup and glare (note pleasant shadow patterns on the Fresno, California, patio above right). But in cool-summer climates, the heat held by paving or rocks (as in the Portland garden above left) can be welcome.If the existing lawn is a stoloniferous grass such as Bermuda, Kikuyu, or zoysia, you'll need much of this summer to get rid of it (see details on page 178).Don't worry about how long the preparatory work takes: you have all summer. Because of our arid climate, Westerners generally gain an advantage by doing as much landscape planting as possible in the fall. That gives plants a full winter of low-angle sunlight, low temperatures, and some rainfall to get established before the rigors of summer.In mild-climate regions, the earliest you should begin major planting is September 15 (start in late August in cold-winter areas). Try to finish planting by November 15 (October 15 in cold-winter areas).Out with the old lawnTurf is easiest to remove while still green. For bluegrass, rye, and other hardy grasses, follow the steps on page 180. To make the job easier, moisten soil a day or two beforehand. Stack the sod strips upside-down in an out-of-the-way place, and keep them slightly moist (covering with plastic helps); in about a year, you'll have excellent compost.Spray hard-to-kill stoloniferous grasses while they're green and vigorously growing; use a systemic herbicide such as glyphosate. Usually, it takes two or three applications, spaced 10 days to several weeks apart, to kill the last remnants. Follow label directions precisely; spray that drifts onto green parts of other plants, including trunks of roses, citrus, and chorizia trees, can damage them.Determined composters will even use Bermuda (albeit separately); most gardeners won't risk regrowth, and discard it. In drought areas where you're sure the lawn is already completely dead, you can just rotary-till it under. Soak soil several days beforehand so it's barely moist (like a wrung-out sponge) when you till it.What about irrigation?In most cases, it's best to disconnect and cap off an old sprinkler system and start with a new drip or low-flow one. Add an anti-siphon valve to meet current codes. Just leave the old pipes in the ground.In simpler remodels, if the old pipes are sound, you can cap some heads and switch others to bubblers, drip emitters, or low-flow sprinklers. Local suppliers can probably offer parts and information.As you regrade soil or add paving, install temporarily capped risers to the new grade or install pipes (and electric wires) under paving, as needed. This saves having to undo completed work later.Consider mounds. Get ready to plantSince most lawn alternatives don't need mowing, they allow you more Rexibility in contouring the site. Low mounds can discourage people, animals, and even cars from cutting across planted areas. They also give young trees and shrubs instant height, add privacy, and look more interesting than a flat expanse.The smaller your space, the lower the mounds should be to stay in scale with their surroundings. Plants on mounds are usually best watered by drip.Add header boards to keep different materials in place. Install any paving materials, and prepare soil for planting by tilling in organic soil amendments. For most soils, you need to add enough amendments to cover soil 2 to 5 inches deep.Spacing ground coversThe bigger the plants at maturity, the more future troubles you cause by planting too closely. Most shrubby ground coversΓÇösuch as junipers, grevillea, or rhaphiolepisΓÇömature to at least 4 feet wide, more often to 5 to 8 feet. Planted 2 feet apart, they look good at planting time. A year later, they will almost cover the soil. But in two years, they will be crowded and beginning to fight one another for survival. Crowded shrubs mound up higher than normal and are more susceptible to insects and disease.For best results in the long term, a good estimate for plant spacing is about two-thirds the width of the mature plant (check the Western Garden Book or measure for yourself). That means 4 to 6 feet apart for most junipers, almost never less than 3 to 4 feet apart for any shrub. For best looks immediately, cover all exposed soil with mulch, keeping it away from woody trunks. Or, fill gaps between big, slow growers with quick, temporary, noncompetitive ground covers such as wildflowers, freeway daisies (Osteospermum), or verbena. (Don't use aggressively growing plants such as hypericum or ivy as temporary fillers.) Spacing of low, fast- spreading plants such as hypericum, ivy, or vinca is less critical. Set 6 to 8 inches apart, small rooted cuttings can close ranks in as little as 6 months; spaced 1 to 1 1/2 feet apart, they should grow solid in 12 to 18 months.To control weeds, professionals often use a pre-emergent herbicide, alone or in addition to mulch. But a mulch alone, 4 inches deep, will eliminate most weeds and make the few that do sprout easy to pull. If you keep up with them, hand-pulling small areas takes about the same effort as applying chemical controls.Sunset Magazine. "Time to Ask Serious Questions About Lawns and Water." Sunset Magazine. June 1990. Pp 175-180.</text>
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<text>Sunset Magazine. "Time to Ask Serious Questions About Lawns and Water." Sunset Magazine. June 1990. Pp 175-180.</text>
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<text>What Is Water?by H. Baldwin and L. B. Marman, Jr.There is no simple answer to this question, for water means different things to different people. To most of us, water is what flows from a faucet, or what fills a pond or stream; it is the rain that makes the garden grow, or spoils a picnic. To a sportsman, water is a lake filled with fish, or a surface on which to sail, ski, or surf.But no definition of water is complete without a discussion of its nature and its unusual properties.Water makes up three-fourths of the Earth's surface and is the most common substance on Earth. Yet, as common as it is, water is also the most precious substance on Earth. A contradiction? Not at all, for water is vital to life as we know it. In fact, water makes up two-thirds of our bodies.Water's unusual properties, which make it so important to life, can be attributed to its remarkable chemical characteristics.To a chemist, water is H2O. This formula represents a molecule of water composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Both molecules and the atoms that combine to form them are much too small to be seen with the unaided eye.Water is actually more complex than its simple formula suggests. For our purposes, however, we need think of water only in less complicated terms.The atoms in any molecule of any substance are joined together by a process known as chemical bonding. This bonding is particularly strong in water and results from the atoms' mutual need for more electrons that are parts of an atom.To satisfy this need for electrons, water's oxygen atom "shares" each hydrogen atom's one electron with the hydrogen atom, and the hydrogen atoms each "share" an electron of the oxygen atom. The resulting chemicalbond, coupled with other more complicated facets of water's chemistry, is the reason water has such unusual properties.Strong chemical bonding accounts for water's remarkable ability to adhere to substances, that is, to wet them, and thus eventually to dissolve them. Chemical bonding also affects water's boiling point and its unique freezing process.You are probably familiar with the three states of water found in nature: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor). Water is the only substance on Earth that appears in all three of its natural states within the normal range of climatic conditionsΓÇösometimes at the same time. Familiar examples of water in its three natural states are rain, snow or hail, and steam. As noted, water exhibits some unusual properties compared with similar liquids. For example, most liquids contract steadily as they freeze. Water, however, contracts to a point but begins to expand as it reaches its freezing point of 0 degrees C (32 degrees F). This expansion can crack automobile engines or fracture rocks. It is an important part of the weathering, or breaking up, of rocks.Because of this expansion, ice is lighter than liquid water. This is fortunate since, as a result, rivers and lakes freeze from the top down rather than from the bottom up. If freezing took place from the bottom up, some bodies of water might freeze solid, killing aquatic plant and animal life. Bottom-up freezing would also significantly affect our weather since many bodies of water in temperate parts of the country might never thaw completely, even in summer.In ice, the water molecules are bound together in a nearly immobile crystal structure and the molecules do not move around each other. When ice is warmed to 0 degrees C (32 degrees F), it begins to melt and becomes liquidwater.As a liquid, the water molecules are less tightly bound together and can move around each other rather freely. The molecules' ability to slip and slide around gives water (and other liquids) its fluid properties.As water becomes a vapor the situation becomes more complicated. Water boils at a temperature of 100 degrees C (212 degrees F) and becomes water vapor. Water can become vapor, however, at any temperature below its boiling point. Both ice and liquid water can evaporate into the air as vapor. Evaporation is part of the reason why puddles disappear after a rain. It is the water vapor in the air that gives you that "sticky" feeling on a hot, humid summer day.As a vapor, the water molecules move about rapidly with little attraction for each other.Another unusual property of water is its heat capacity, that is, its ability to absorb heat without becoming extremely hot itself. In fact, water's heat capacity is second only to ammonia in nature.Without water in it, a pan on a burner rapidly becomes red hot and then burns black. But put water in the pan and the water will absorb heat from it. The pan will become hot, but not as hot as before, and the temperature of the water, even if it boils, will rise only a small amount compared to thetemperature of the pan.It is water's high heat capacity that helps make the oceans a key factor in the world's climate. The oceans absorb heat slowly during the day and during summer, and radiate, or give off, this heat slowly at night or duringthe winter. This process helps prevent our climate from extremes of heat or cold. Deserts, such as the Sahara in Africa, lack water's moderating influence and hence become scorching hot in the daytime and very cold at night.Water also has a high surface tension in addition to its high heat capacity. Surface tension is the ability of a substance to stick to itself and "pull itself together," or to cohere.As a drop of water falls from a tap it forms a sphere. A sphere is the shape that allows water to most closely pull itself together. Water's surface tension is so high that it is estimated that a force of 210,000 pounds would be needed to pull apart a column of water 1 inch in diameter. Since the water must be absolutely pure for this experiment, it is difficult to prove.Its high surface tension enables water to support objects heavier than water itself, such as a sewing needle or insects that skate across the surface.Water sticks. or adheres, to other surfaces as well. In a very narrow column such as a plant root or stem, the combination of surface tension and adhesion pulls water upward. This movement, known as capillarity, is partly responsible for the movement of water in soil as well as the movement of food in our bodies.Perhaps water's most remarkable property is that, given enough time, it can and will wear away everything exposed to it. Examine a rock from a stream bed and you will find it rounded and nearly smooth. This is due to water's action as an excellent solvent. The stream's flowing water has acted over the years to carry away small particles of the rock.This process whereby water gradually breaks down rocks into soil and then eventually carries even the soil away is called erosion. Water's ability to erode can often cause problems for man by carrying away fertile soil and later depositing suspended soil particles in reservoirs, ship channels, or other places where it is not desirable.But where did all the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, and under the ground come from?Scientists believe that as the Earth formed about 4 billion years ago its primitive atmosphere contained many chemicals that would have poisoned man had he been around. But among these chemicals were the basic gases needed to form water.As the Earth cooled from a mass of molten rock, water formed in the atmosphere; then it began to rain. Scientists now believe that it rained for many, many years as the Earth continued to cool and the atmosphere we know today began to take shape. The rain came in such a large quantity that the low places on the Earth's surface were covered by water to a great depth and the oceans were formed.Ever since the rain began to fall and the oceans were formed, water has been trying to mold the Earth into a smooth surface. Other forces within the Earth keep raising up new hills and mountains; otherwise the Earth eventually would be covered by one vast shallow ocean.Scientific evidence indicates that life itself began in the primitive ocean and eventually found its way to dry land.As the probable birthplace of life and because of its necessity to living things, life as we know it could not exist on Earth without that most abundant and remarkable of substancesΓÇöwater.This publication is one of a series of general interest publications prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey to provide information about the earth sciences, natural resources, and the environment To obtain a catalog of additional titles in the series "Popular Publications of the U.S Geological Survey," write:Branch of Distribution U S Geological Survey 604 South Pickett Street Alexandria, VA 22304 Branch of DistributionU.S. Geological SurveyBox 25286, Federal CenterDenver, CO 80225U.S. Department of the Interior/Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office: 1982 - 361-618 - 155/127.</text>
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<text>U.S. Department of the Interior/Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office: 1982 - 361-618 - 155/127.</text>
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<text>NOTES Caption title. Shipping list no.: 88-462-P. "June 17, 1988, (S. 1652)." "102 Stat. 620." "Public Law 100-339." SUBJECTS 1. Agriculture--Research--Texas--Lubbock. 2. Plant conservation--Research--Texas--Lubbock. 3. Water conservation--Research--Texas--Lubbock. LOCATION Zimmerman Government Publications CALL NUMBER # AE 2.110:100-339 </text>
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<text>United States. "An Act to Authorize the Establishment by the Secretary of Agriculture of a Plant Stress and Water Conservation Research Laboratory and Program at Lubbock, Texas. Washington, D.C.? : U.S. G.P.O. : Supt. of Docs., U.S.G.P.O., distributor, 1988] </text>
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<text>PrefaceEveryone knows that water is essential to human existence, but we seldom think about it unless it stops coming out of the faucet. Yet water is intertwined with a myriad of issues, ranging from agriculture, drought, and energy to the environment, floods, and sociology.Like so many areas in today's society, water has become a complex web Or legal decisions, technical concepts, and political compromises. This has led to what many refer to as the "water crisis." The purpose of this book is to unravel that web in a manner that can be readily understood by the average American. To that end, I may have been guilty of some oversimplification, at the expense of extreme technical accuracy, but the concepts presented are much more important than the minute details.Many books have been published in the last few years on water pollution, and most Americans are now aware of that problem. As a result, the nation is well on its way to dealing with pollution. The water crisis goes well beyond that issue and is the subject of this book. The massive array of issues involved could overwhelm the reader, so each is discussed separately. Accordingly, each chapter is relatively complete within itself, while still being intertwined with the preceding chapters and those that follow. While the facts within each chapter will surprise many readers, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, and the overall picture presents an alarming insight into the way America works today.Of necessity, the first issue discussed is whether there is enough water for people. After crossing this threshold, the book concentrates on the cause of the water crisis and current proposals to circumvent it. The latter are found to treat the symptoms of the crisis, rather than its cause. Other proposals are therefore presented which could alleviate and possibly stem the crisis.No one proposal is likely to provide a cure-all to this complex crisis, however. The suggestions unveiled concentrate on approaches that involve the least involvement by the federal government and the smallest expenditure of taxpayer dollars. Market place solutions are sought where practicable. The author believes this, the "American way," could avert the predicted water crisis with the least disruption to the lives of Americans and to their environment.This is amply demonstrated in the latter part of the book where the individual issues are applied to a single water project. The sociological and aesthetic implications of innundating an Indian tribe and endangered Bald Eagles, for example, are bound to stir controversy. Yet one need not undertake massive philosophical soul-searching after becoming aware of the issues discussed in the first part of the book and applying them to one of the nation's most controversial water projects.Once the facts in this book are understood, it should be obvious that common sense and the free enterprise system will go a long way toward rectifying the many abuses of our water resources.Welsh, Frank. "How to Create a Water Crisis." Boulder: Johnson Publishing Company. 1985.</text>
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<text>Welsh, Frank. "How to Create a Water Crisis." Boulder: Johnson Publishing Company. 1985.</text>
